fouth Quiz

FIRST OBSERVATION, ANALISYS REQUIREMENT

Observation

Observations or observation is one of the techniques of collecting data / facts are quite effective to learn a system. Observation is the direct observation of the decision below and the physical environment or a direct observation of activities that are currently running.

The Creator of the Observations The type of information sought during the decision-making behavior of the physical environment is the following:

a. Gather views on what is actually carried out the decision.

b. See directly the relationship between the decision makers with the other organizational members.

c. The influence that caused the decision of the elements of their physical space.

d. Understand the messages sent through the control (such as how to dress, table position)

Observations help confirm or reject the return and see what that was found through interviews, questionnaires.
The steps that need to be done in the activities of a manager's decision:

a. Decide what Observations (activities).

b. Decide on the level of the activities of these concrete Observations.

c. Creating categories is sufficient to capture the main events.

d. Setting up the scale, a list of names or other materials that are appropriate for observation.

e. Decide when making observations.

Each approach to the need to make any Observations have respective advantages and decrease. Sampling allows the analysis time
preparing the interval-specific intervals to observe the activities of the manager. While sampling the observed events display a behavioral context of the integral nature.

An activity observed

At the time of making observations, analysis can also participate or just observe only the people who are doing an activity that observers.
Observation has some good and also the lack of comparison with other data collection techniques.
Goodness of observation are as follows:

a. The data collected through observations tend to have high reliability. Sometimes observations made to check the validity of the data that has been previously obtained from individuals.

b. Can see directly what is done, work that is sometimes complicated to be difficult.

c. Can describe the physical environment of activities, such as the physical layout of equipment, lighting, sound disturbances, and others.

d. Can measure the level of a job, in terms of time needed to complete one unit job particular.

While lack of is follows:
a. Generally observed that people feel upset or uncomfortable, so that will not perform the work with proper operation.
b. Work that is being observed may not represent the level of difficulty of a particular work or special activities that are not always carried out or the volume-volume of a particular activity.
c. Can disrupt the process that is being observed.
d. People are likely to perform the work with better than usual and often cloak- ugliness.

Instructions-instructions that can be considered to make effective observations are as follows:
1. What should be done
to make observations, things to do:
a. Plan first observation to be conducted, including:
• What will observers
• Where is the location of the location of observation
• When will the observation
• Who will conduct the observations
• Who will observers
• How to implement these observations.
b. Ask for permission first from the managers and employees are involved or
c. act with humility (low profile)
d. complete notes during the observation
e. knowledge back with the results of observations of individuals involved.
2. That should not be done, namely:
a. Possible work observers individuals and other individuals.
b. Emphasize work that is not important.
c. Do not make assumptions.

CONCEPT OF INVESTIGATION SYSTEM
There are some point about Investigation System Concept, which the following:

1. Discrepancy between the objective of system and the real condition of system
2. Problem detection report is not real, because:
- the objective is too ideal
- lack of attitude and resources
- system measuring is not accurate
- the objective of system which have to be left behind
- difference between the idle system and the temporary system
3. The Problem solving
- investigation to the system which is running
- getting the ideal system consensus
- choose the best alternative
4. The objective of investigation have to show the problem which in fact is happened


PROBLEMS IN INVESTIGATION SYSTEM
There are some problems when conduct the investigation:
- Time
- Cost
- Science
- Politics
- Intervention


RECOMENDATION

A result from investigation is a recomendation which are the following:
- Does not take any action if the problem does not exist
- Perform system maintenance of the small problems
- Increasing the ability or skills
- Consider modifications to total system
- Putting the problem to occur in the development plan system which immediately made

INVESTIGATION TACTICS

Why we need tactics?
- to find all issues
- Knowing the causes of the emergence of problems
- to determine the appropriate solution
- Done so that all elements of the system can receive a solution without disrupting their activities.

Some of the tactics that can be done:
- Listen to opinions the subject of system
- Do not give the early breakthrough
- Compare the stories from the subject of system concerning in the same case
- Note the logical inconsistency problem

INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUE

Directly:
- The questionnaire
- FAQ
- Observations
Not directly:
- Flow of procedure
- Reviewing documents
- Sample
- Tabular


RECENTLY SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

- Input
- Output
- File
- Data elements
- Transaction volume and document action
- Data flow diagram

ANALYSIS REQUIREMENT

Stage of intensive interaction between the systems analyst with the end user where the system development team show their expertise to get feedback and trust so that the user get a good participation.

4 purpose that want to achieved:
- Explain the complete system
- describing the ideal Information System
- Bringing the ideal information system to a condition at this time to pay attention to the constraints of resources
- Providing encouragement to the confidence of user in the system development

Method:
- FAQ
- Kuisioner
- Observation
- Analysis procedure
- Document observation

Resources problems:
- Time
- Money
- Expertise
- Technology
- External Factors

Document analysis requirement

- Analysis guide: relationship with the end user, process monitoring, problems in data gathering.

- User requirement: real needs, report needs, exercise needs, and new system influence.

- System problem: explain time and cost constraint, skill, technology and external factor.

- Document such as data gathering instrument, statistic consensus, data flow according to physic and logical, first data element in data dictionary.

Generating Systems Alternatives

How to make the system at moment condition more close with the ideal system condition?

- create alternative to solve the information system problem

- Applying best alternative wisely

Strategy option

- Distributed versus centralized processing

Changing information decision from centralized data processing to decentralized end user responsibility center.

- Integrated versus dispersed database

System planner must consider what kind of incoming data to database and incoming to file.

- Surround Strategy of System Development

Environment are important strategy in overtake company case because information system from other company possible different with company at moment.

GENERATING SYSTEMS ALTERNATIVES

How to approach the condition of the system at this time with the condition of the ideal system?
- Create an alternative to solve the problem of information system
- The best alternative is applied wisely

Options Strategies
- Distributed versus centralized processing
Changes in information decision-making from the centralized data processing to the decentralized end user responsibility center
- Integrated versus dispersed database
System designer must consider the data which are entered in the database and into the file
- Surround Strategy of System Development
About important environmental strategy in the case of company takeovers because the information system of other companies may vary with the company at this time.

Options Tactics
- The design is done before the selection operation

Designing Operational Options
The design options can be grouped into:
a. Input
- Online Vs Off Line Data Entry
- Keyed Vs Machine Readable Data Entry
- Centralized Vs Decentralized Data Entry
b. Processing
- Batch Vs Realtime record update
- Sequential Vs Direct Access to records
- Single Vs Multiple Users update of records
c. Output
- Traditional Vs Turn Around Documents
- Structured Vs Inquiry-based reports



SELECTING THE PROPER SYSTEM

a. Comparing tactics: System comparison based on the costs and benefits relatively; There are 3 ways a system is superior to the other, if:
- A's cost is lower than B and both are the same benefits.
- A's cost is lower than B and A yield more advantage than B.
- A and B have the same but the A's cost advantage more than B.

b. Some methods of comparison system
- Break Even point Analyisis
- Payback Period
- Discounted PayBack period
- Internal Rate of Return

c. Category Cost
- Hardware
- Software
- People
- Suppliers
- Teleccommunications
- Physical sites

d. Fee Details
Comparing the cost of information systems through the life of the system, analysis is calculating the cost changes for the future and there are 3 models of cost of information system, namely Linear, and exponentially Step Function.

e. Cost of information system can occur only once and can also occur continously.
- The cost of information systems that occur only once is ontime cost and development cost that occur during the development of the system.
- The cost of information systems that occur on a continual basis are reccuring cost and operational cost where the cost of this is happened when the information system operates every day.



INFORMATION SYSTEM FACTORS
Qualitative factors that lead the performance of a good information system are:
- Reduce errors
- Reduce the time to fix errors
- Reducing the response time from the alternative workstation
- Accelerating the provision of information
- Increase the security system
- Have active update source record
- Increase user satisfaction



CORPORATE STRATEGY FACTORS
- Customer satisfaction
- Level sales increased
- Commitment of consumers and vendors
- Information of marketing products


PRESENTING LEARNING OF SYSTEM

- Conduct a brief presentation
- Reduce technical explanation in detail
- Presenting clearly with visual aids
- If using a model using a tool such as a laptop so that more informative
- Emphasize the benefits of the proposed information system with some alternative that is appropriate conditions experienced by the company.

Decision to continue or No

- If the company decided to develop the information system, the department will do next, namely the System Design Process.

- If then the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) will be terminated.

- Often the problem will be found with the system and the study and top management will usually ask for the re-employment system to study.

- With the alternative, the decision to repeat a previous stage SDLC or not called Go - No-Go Decision.

- Model will describe some of the stages of the repeated and sometimes the information will make a decision before the repeat stage system of study.

Third Quiz

Importance of developing an information system

Development of the system may mean preparing a new system for replace the old system or improve the overall system existing.

Importance of developing an information system:

• There is a problem (problem) that arise in the old system

The problems that arise can be:

· Irregularity

· Organizational growth

• To seize the opportunity (opportunities)

Information technology has developed so quickly

• The instructions (directives)

Goal is the development of the system:

To complete the problem (problem) that arise in the old system
The problems that arise can be:

· irregularity in the development of System Organization
In an organization there are some data that must be processed, when Organization developing processed data needed for the system the greater good, if not use the information system so that both Organization growth will be hampered
opportunity

· Growth Organization

Information systems also help in achieving opportunities. And also make it easier to capture opportunities.
Referrals Information system can more quickly provide instruction, for example, confusion is a company looking for documents, the system with the information we provide instructions directly to the system to search for it.

Expected on the new system

Has been developed with the new system, the expected increase will occur, the increase in the new system.

• Performance

Improvement of the performance of the new system which will be most effective. Performance can be measured from the throughput and response time.

• Information

Improving the quality of information presented.

• Economy

Improvement of the benefits or the benefits or a decrease in the cost-reduction.

• Control

Detect and fix errors that occur and will occur.

• Efficiency

Improvement of operational efficiency.

• Services

Improvement of the services provided by the system.

The principle of the development system

· The system is developed for management

· The system developed is a large capital investment
Investment capital should consider 2 things:
1. 1. All alternatives should be investigated
2. 2. Investment should be the best value

· System developed need educated people who
Stages of work and tasks that must be made in the system development process

· The development of the system does not have to order

· Do not be afraid to cancel the project

· Documentation must be available to guide the development of the system

Life cycle development system

1. Stages of Planning System (System Planning)
2. Stages Analysis System (System Analiysis)
3. The design phases of system (System Design)
4. Stages Selection System (System Selection)
5. System Implementation Stages (System Implementation)
6. Stages Care System (System Maintenance)

SI Model development
(Life Cycle SI)

• CLASIC life cycle / waterfall model, consists of the phases of planning system (engineering system), needs analysis, design, writing programs, testing and treatment system.
• prototyping model, starting with collection needs and improvements, the design quickly, the establishment of prototype, evaluation of customer prototype, repairing prototype and final product.
• Rapid Application Development (RAD) model, with business activity began modeling, data modeling, process modeling, generation and application
  testing.
• Evolutionary model that can be a model incremental or spiral model Incremental model is a combination model sequential linier with prototyping (device word processing software with different versions). While the spiral model of analysis risk. If the analysis shows there is a risk uncertainty of demand, the development system can be stopped.
• Engineering generation-to-four (4GT), starting with collection needs, design strategies, implementation and testing using a 4GL.

Waterfall Model

Contains a series of activities such as the process has been described above and presented in a separate process, such as the requirement specification, design implementation software, testing . After each step is defined, this step in the sign off and followed the development in the next step.

The steps that are important in this model is

• The analysis and specification

Services, goals and constraints resulting from consultation with users system. Then everything is made in the form that can be understood by users and staff developers.

• Design systems and software

Divide the system design process needs to be system software or hardware. The process produces an overall system architecture. Design software, including the functions of system software that may be in the form of the transformation in one or more programs that can be run.

• Implementation and unit testing

During this stage, the design software we realize as a complete program or program unit. Test units, including units that each test according to specification.

• Integration and system testing

Unit tested and integrated the program into a complete system for making sure that software requirements have been met. After testing, the system was delivered to the customer.

• Operation and maintenance

This phase is long. System installed and used. Maintenance, including correction of errors not found in the previous step. Improvements to the implementation of the system and increasing service needs of the new system as found.

Weakness Waterfall

• Iterations frequent cause a new problem
• Client trouble to declare all desires explicitly beginning stage of development.
• The s / w which will be developed known long after the project development begins

Prototype model

• provides a method with about a complete system, customers can see the modeling system from the side view and techniques procedural that will be built
• On the efficiency development Testing algorithm, the interaction with the OS and user
• Discover the top; paper model, work model, program
• evaluated by the user and used to process again needs
• The developers will learn understand the needs and user desires.
• Identify the needs of consumers, systems analyst will be to study feasibility studies and needs to users, including interface model, engineering procedural and technology that will used.

Summary prototype

• Identify the needs: analysis needs of the prospective user
• Quick design: the creation of a global design to form the s / w instance
• Build prototype: the creation of s / w prototype including testing and completion
• Evaluate customer: evaluate prototype and refine analyst needs of prospective users
• Preparation & implementation: the creation of including the actual design, coding, and testing

The weakness of the prototype

· unconsciousness user that is only a model of the early models is not the end

· Developers sometimes create implementation of the markets.

· techniques and tools that are not optimal in the prototype that will still be used on s / w indeed.

RAD Model

• Rapid Application Development
• The development of s / w in sequential linier
• adaptation do high speed, can be made in pace with the development approach component-based
• If the data, clear analysis, and the scope of small
  the RAD can be used with both
• Often also called a 'high speed version' of waterfall model,
• Emphasis on development cycles a short
• RAD approach to follow the following phases;
• Business modeling, the flow of information from model with the function;
  information is affecting business, who appear, who is issue, the information I given, Who processing?
• Data modeling; Part of the modeling business defined in a set of data objects.
• The characteristics (attributes) of each object identified and related
• The process of modeling, the object data will be implemented on the business functions.
• Descriptions for the built additional modifications, deletion, or return the data object.
• Data modeling; Part of the modeling business defined in a set of data objects.
• The characteristics (attributes) of each object identified and related
• The process of modeling, the object data will be implemented on the business functions.
• Descriptions for the built additional modifications, deletion, or return the data object.
• Application generation, Conducting re-use components that have (if possible)
• Or make use of return components if required.
• Testing / turnover, the RAD emphasizes the use of return and program components are ready to test

Weakness RAD

• Model of the (project scale), resources requires good and solid
• Requires commitment developer and the same user to be completed quickly accordance with the plan

System development approach

• A structured approach versus classical approach (seen from the methodology used)
• Piecemeal approach versus system approach (seen from the target to be achieved)
• The bottom-up approach versus top-down approach (seen from how to determine the needs of the system)
• Total-system approach versus modular approach (seen from the way the developing)
• Great loop- approach versus evolutionary approach approach (seen from the technology that will be used)

A structured approach versus classical opponent approach

Classical approach

• Stages in SDLC-stage
• Not to include users, system analysts put more emphasis
• The problem: the development of hard, expensive treatment, the possibility of error, success is less assured, the problems in the implementation of

Structured approach

• User involvement from the beginning to determine the needs of the system
• Using tools-tools such as data flow diagrams

Piecemeal approach versus system approach

Piecemeal approach

• Emphasizing on an application or event
• Don’t override the overall target

System approach

• Viewing the system as a whole is unity
• Emphasizing the achievement of overall objectives

Bottom-up approach versus top-down approach

Bottom-up approach

• Starting from the bottom level of the operational
• It is the characteristics of classical
• Known by the term data-analysis

Top-down approach

• Starting from the top-level strategy planning
• It is the characteristics of structured
• Also known to the decision-analysis

Total-system approach versus modular approach

Total-system approach

• Develop a system simultaneously and comprehensively
• It is the characteristics of classical approach

Modular approach

• break a complex system into parts of a simple
• System to be developed on time, easy to understand and kept
• It is the characteristics of structured

Great loop- approach versus evolutionary approach approach

great-loop approach approach

• Develop a system simultaneously using the advanced technology
• At risk and spend a lot of high cost

evolutionary approach approach

• Applying advanced technology for application-specific applications
• Developed for the needs
• Save the cost and can follow the development of technology

System Development Methodology and algorithm

Methodology is: Unity methods, procedures, concepts of employment, rules and postulate used by science knowledge, art or other disciplines.

Method is: One way / technique to do something systematic. System development methodology that is usually created or proposed by:

• Book Author
• Researcher
• Consultant
• House System
• Software factory

algorithm is: Sort-order the procedure to solve a problem

System Development Methodology is classified into 3 groups:

• Functional Decomposition Methodologies (Functional Methodology fission) HIPO (Hierarchy Input Process Output), SR (Stepwise Refinement), Isr (Iterative Stepwise Refinement), Information Hiding
• Data Oriented Methodologies (Data Oriented Methodology) Data Flow Oriented Methodologies: SADT, Composite Design, SSAD Data Structure Oriented Methodologies: JSD, W / O
• Prescriptive Methodologies ISDOS, PLEXSYS, PRIDE, spectrum

Classification of development methodology

• Functional decomposition

– Emphasizing the breakthrough system subsystem

– Example : HIPO, Stepwise refinement, iterative stepwise refinement, information hiding

• Data-oriented

– Emphasizing on the characteristics of the data processed

• Data-flow oriented: modules according to the type of data elements

• Data-structure oriented: structure of the input and output

• Prescriptive

– Usually provided by the manufacturer of the software

Development Tools And Engineering System

Can be:
1. Graphic HIPO, DFD, SADT, W / O, JSD
2. Chart

• Chart to describe the activity
• Chart to describe the layout
• Chart to describe the relationship of personnel

Techniques used for the development of the system include:

• Engineering Project Management: CPM, pert
• Technical Fact Finding: Interview, Observation, questionnaire, Sampling
• Engineering Cost Analysis
• Technical Running Meetings
• Technical Inspection

The cause of the failure of the system:

• Lack of adjustment of system
• Failure to set the user needs and involving users
• Less than perfect quality evaluation and cost analysis
• The existence of damage and error design
• The use of computer technology and software do not planned
• and the technology is not appropriate
• Development of systems that can not be kept
• Implementation of a poorly planned and implemented

It is used:

• SDLC
• Prototype
• Device modeling
• Engineering Project Management
• CASE
• JAD
• The involvement of the

Techniques used in the development a system

• Technical project management

Technique that is used to scheduling project, for example : CPM dan PERT

• Fack finding technique

to collect data and determine and find the facts

– interview

– Observation

• cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis

• Technical meetings run

• walkthrough

Analyst System and programmer

Systems analyst is a person who analyzes the system with learning
problems that arise and determine the needs of users and
identify solutions that reasonless (better understand the aspects
business and computer technology).
Other names: system designers, business Analyst, systems consultant, systems
engineer, software engineer, systems programmer Analyst, information system
engineer.

Programmer who is writing code for an application program
based on a design made by the system analysts (better understand
computer technology).

Duties and responsibilities:

System analyst:

1. Analyst responsibility system not only on making a computer program, but the system overall.
2. Knowledge systems analyst must be knowledgeable, not only in computer technology, but also in the field of application
3. Systems analyst job in making the program limited to the solution outline the problem.
4. System analyst working relationship involving many people, not limited fellow analyst on the system, but also the programmers and system managers.

Programmer:

1. Responsibility limited to the programmer making a computer program.
2. Knowledge is quite limited to programmers computer technology, the system computers, utilities and languages program is required.
3. Programmers job is technical and must be appropriate in the making program instructions.
4. Programmers do not work the relationship with people, limited on fellow programmers and system analysts who prepare building design (specification) of the program.
   
   Knowledge and skill system analyst
   
   Systems analyst must have a broad knowledge and expertise that is needed. Some analysts agree that the knowledge-knowledge and expertise is necessary for following a good system analyst:
   a. Knowledge and technical expertise on data processing, technology
   computer and computer program
   Technical expertise is to be held, including expertise in
   the use of tools and techniques for developing software applications
   and expertise in using computers.
   Technical knowledge should include knowledge of the owned
   hardware, data communications technology, computer languages,
   operating system, Utilities, packages and other software.
   b. Knowledge about business in general
   Business application is an application that is now most widely applied,
   the systems analyst must have knowledge about this. Knowledge
   This is required so that the system analyst can communicate with users
   system. Knowledge of this business include financial accounting,
   cost accounting, management accounting, management control system,
   marketing of production, personnel management, finance, organizational behavior,
   company policy and business aspects of the other.
   c. Knowledge of methods kuantitatip
   In building models of applications, many analysts use the system
   quantitative methods such as linier programming, dynamic programming,
   regresion, network, decision tree, trend, simulation.
   d. Experts solve complex problems into smaller problems
   Systems analyst must have the ability to put the problem -
   complex problems faced by the business, split problem
   to the part-part, and then must analysis string can return to a system that can overcome
   the problems are.
   e. Experts to communicate and build relationships
   Systems analyst must have the ability to make good communication
   verbally and in writing. Expertise is required in the interview,
   presentations, meetings and preparing reports.
   f. Understand information systems development methodology
   Human factors that are critical in the system and the human character
   with each other differently. Analysts in the rigid system that builds
   working relationship with other personnel, personnel involved, will
   create jobs to be ineffective. Moreover, if the systems analyst
   can not build a good relationship with the system, it will be
   do not get support from the system or the management and
   tendency of the system will hard.
   
   Team development of the system (I)
   
   System development project in the small and simple, it is possible only
   there is a system analyst programmer as a trap (analyst / programmer)
   or a double as the programmers systems analyst (programmer / analyst).
   However, the development project for a large system or complex,
   This work is usually done by people in the form of a team.
   Members of the team developing this system depends on the size of the
   the scope of the project will be treated. The team in general can be
   of personnel, personnel as follows:
   1. Manager analyst system (manage systems of Analyst)
   Manager systems analyst is also known as project coordinator and
   have duties and responsibilities as follows:
   a. As a coordinator or head of the team developing the system
   b. Direct, control and manage the system development team members
   another.
   c. Make a schedule of the project development system that will
   done.
   d. Responsible for defining the problem, feasibility studies, design
   system and application.
   e. Provide recommendations system.
   f. Represent the team to deal with the system in terms of
   negotiations-negotiations and the provision of advice-giving to
   management and system users.
   g. Create reports of project progress (progress report).
   h. Reviewing and re-examine the work of the team.
   2. Chairman of the systems analyst (systems Analyst leads)
   Chairman of the systems analyst is usually served as deputy manager of the analyst
   system. Duties of the task is to help managers and system analysts
   represent the system when the manager obstruction analyst.
   3. Senior systems analyst
   Senior systems analyst (senior systems Analyst) is a systems analyst
   that have been experienced.
   4. Junior systems analyst (systems Analyst junior)
   Analysis system is a junior systems analyst who has not experienced
   still need assistance and guidance-systems analyst from a more
   senior. Junior systems analyst is often also called the system analyst
   still trained (systems Analyst trainee).
   5. Senior application programmers (senior applications programmer)
   Programmers Application is a senior computer programmer who has
   experienced with the task of design specifications from the application program
   and coordinate the work of other programmers. Application programmer
   senior sometimes also referred to the programmer / analyst.
   6. Application programmer (application programmer)
   Application programmers are computer programmers are experienced enough
   duty and can do without having to be directly again.
   7. junior application programmers (junior applications programmer)
   Application programmers junior is a computer programmer who has not
   experienced and are still under the direct guidance from the programmer
   more senior. junior application programmers are usually only involved in the
   modules making a simple program, such as making
   forms of I / O. Application programmer junior is often called
   with the application programmer who still trained (applications programmer
   trainee).
   
   Team development of the system (II)
   
   1. User System
   a. Users
   As end-user (operator) and the user-manager who oversees the work
   end-user.
   b. Management
   Hold role in agreeing the development plan system
   and the provision of funds.
   
   2. System Designer
   a. Project Coordinator
   Responsible so that the team can work in harmony and optimal
   and control the implementation so that appropriate plans.
   b. System Analyst & Design
   Personnel who provide solutions and designing the new system.
   c. Programmer
   Personnel who create programs based on design the system analyst.
   d. Network Designer
   Responsible for network design, such as LAN, MAN, WAN.
   e. Technician (Hardware)
   Personnel configuration-set the hardware configuration appropriate
   in order to work optimally.
   f. Database Administrator
   Personnel responsible against a database system, covering
   pattern data structure, data integrity, rights to provide access to the user,
   backup, recovery and optimizing database performance.
   g. Documenter
   Personnel who make the system documentation, the book covers the operational
   applications, and technical systems.
   h. Software Tester
   Personnel who ensure that the application programmer who created
   according to specifications.
   i. Graphic Designer
   Personnel who have expertise in designing for applications based
   GUI (Graphic Interface).

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall_model

www.klasiber.net/file.php/1/PSI_I.pdf